Free Cybersecurity and Cyberwar by Peter W. Singer Allan Friedman, Allan Friedman Page B

and creating such surprises for its foes. With a focus on expanding the frontiers of science and technology, it provided much of the funding for a series of initiatives that evolved into the modern Internet. It was renamed DARPA (for Defense) in 1972, and continues to focus on long-term defense-related research and development.
    Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET): The precursor to the modern Internet. Funded by ARPA, it began in 1969 with a first link between UCLA amd Stanford, growing to link forty nodes by 1972 and then exponentially as more universities and research centers around the world joined.
    air-gap: To physically isolate a computer or network from other unsecure networks, including the public Internet, to prevent network-enabled attacks. It sounds nice in theory, but it is extremely hard to ensure complete isolation in practice.
    Anonymous: A decentralized but coordinated collection of users from various Internet forums, who gather to conduct organized attacks, protests, and other actions using cyber means. The most noted of the hactivist groups, its motives range from political protest to vigilantism to sheer amusement.
    asymmetric cryptography: The practice of securing data using a public key, which is shared with everyone, and a private key that remains secret. Data encrypted with the public key can only be decrypted with the private key, and vice versa. This allows secure communications without a shared secret.
    Autonomous System (AS): An independent network serving as a node in the interconnected Internet. Traffic between ASs is governed by the Internet protocols and routing policies.
    Bitcoin: A popular digital currency, first developed in 2008, that offers significant anonymity and requires no centralization or coordinated control.
    botnet: A network of “zombie” computers controlled by a single actor. Botnets are a common tool for malicious activity on the Internet, such as denial-of-serviceattacks and spam, since they provide free (stolen) computation and network resources while hiding the identity of the controller.
    Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): A public agency that coordinates research, communications, and information sharing for public health in the United States.
    certificate authority (CA): A trusted organization that produces signed digital “certificates” that explicitly tie an entity to a public key. This allows asymmetric cryptography users to trust that they are communicating with the right party.
    cloud computing: A shift in control of computing resources from the individual or organization to a shared resource run by a third party. By pooling network-enabled resources, cloud computing enables mobility, scalability, flexibility, and efficiency, but increases the dependency on the cloud provider.
    computer emergency response team (CERT): Organizations located around the world that serve as hubs of cybersecurity technical expertise, collaboration, and security information dissemination. Many governments have their own national CERTs, as do an increasing number of industrial sectors and large organizations.
    computer network operations (CNO): The military concept of utilizing computers to “destroy, deny, degrade, disrupt, [and] deceive,” as the US Air Force puts it, while at the same time, preparing and defending against the enemy’s attempts to do the same.
    Conficker: A computer worm first discovered in 2008 that targeted Windows operating systems. It is noteworthy for the size and spread of the botnet made from computers compromised by the malware, and the international cooperation required to counter it.
    critical infrastructure: The underlying components of the economy that run our modern-day civilization, ranging from power and water, to banking, healthcare, and transportation. Many countries have special policies and regulations for critical infrastructure protection.
    Cyber Command (CYBERCOM): The US military organization