Free The Eagle Has Landed: The Story of Apollo 11 by Jeffrey Smith Page B

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    During this same era, American spy satellites were regularly photographing Soviet military installations. Spy film capsules were shot down from the satellites and retrieved in mid-air by Air Force planes using hooking devices to snag the downward drifting photo packages by their parachutes.
    As the decade marched forward, America continued to refine its satellite technology. Telstar I, designed by Bell Labs and AT&T, was launched into orbit on July 10, 1962. Powered by solar cells, the satellite transmitted live television broadcasts between the United States and Europe. Telstar I gave birth to even more sophisticated communications satellites— Telstar II, Relay, and Syncom. In July of 1963, Syncom II was place in geostationary orbit, such that signals could be bounced back and forth from Earth, giving rise to the now familiar phrase: “Live by satellite.”
    The implementation of geostationary orbits enhanced satellite communications. In a geostationary configuration, a satellite assumes a circular orbit, directly above the Equator, and follows Earth’s natural rotation. With an orbital period equal to Earth’s rotational period, the satellite appears motionless at a fixed point in the sky (a stationary footprint). Today, all communications and weather satellites are placed in geostationary orbits, allowing Earth-based antennae to remain permanently pointed to the same position in the sky.
    With advancements in rocket propulsion, guidance, and navigation technology, the dream of exploring outer space became a reality. On August 27, 1962, NASA launched Mariner 2, which became the first probe to fly directly to another planet (Venus).
    NASA did, however, struggle with its early unmanned lunar exploration spacecraft. On April 23, 1962, Ranger 4 blasted into space, and became the first American spacecraft to reach the Moon’s surface; the first and second Ranger probes had been stranded in Earth’s orbit, when their upper-stage engines failed, and Ranger 3’s upper-stage engine fired too long, causing the probe to miss the Moon by some 20,000 miles. Unfortunately, Ranger 4 lost power after crashing on the lunar surface, and was unable to transmit pictures and other much-needed data to Earth.
    In September of 1962, President John F. Kennedy delivered a memorable address at Rice Stadium in Houston, Texas. Kennedy reiterated America’s goal of landing a man on the Moon before the end of the decade: “Some have asked, why go to the Moon? One may as well ask, why climb the highest mountain? Why sail the widest ocean?”
    While many believed JFK’s goals were unrealistic, the man responsible for designing the space launch rockets never lost faith. Wernher von Braun, who was firmly ensconced as Director of the George C. Marshall Spaceflight Center at Redstone Arsenal, was certain man would eventually reach the Moon.
    Von Braun was actively focused on developing the Saturn V rocket—the launch vehicle that would send astronauts to the Moon. Well before people outside of the state of Massachusetts were familiar with John F. Kennedy, von Braun’s long range plans were already etched in stone. In early May of 1950, the Huntsville Times had informed its readers: DR. VON BRAUN SAYS ROCKET FLIGHTS POSSIBLE TO MOON.
    In order for men to land on the Moon, two separate but interrelated spacecraft would have to be developed—a vehicle to travel to the Moon and back, and a second one to land on the lunar surface. Astronauts would have to master rendezvous and docking maneuvers, as well as learn to pilot both spacecraft. With these ambitious goals in mind, Project Gemini was formally announced in December of 1961.
    Originally called Mercury Mark II, the Gemini spacecraft, manufactured by McDonnell Aircraft, was considerably larger than its predecessor, and consisted of three distinct components—a cockpit capsule for the astronauts; an equipment module containing the electrical power system, propellant tanks,