Free Dark Continent: Europe's Twentieth Century by Mark Mazower

Copyright © 1998 by Mark Mazower
    All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions.
Published in the United States by Vintage Books, a division of Random House, Inc.,
New York, and simultaneously in Canada by Random House of Canada Limited,
Toronto. Originally published in hardcover in Great Britain by Allen Lane/
The Penguin Press, an imprint of the Penguin Group, London and
subsequently in hardcover in the United States by Alfred A. Knopf,
a division of Random House, Inc., New York, in 1998.
    Vintage and colophon are registered trademarks of Random House, Inc.
    Grateful acknowledgment is made to the following for permission to
reprint previously published material:
    Harcourt Brace & Company: Map, “The Expulsion of Germans from Central Europe, 1945–1947,” from Europe in the Twentieth Century , 2nd ed., by Robert O. Paxton, copyright © 1985 by Harcourt Brace & Company. Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Helicon Publishing Limited: Two maps, “Retreat of Ottoman Power in Europe” and “Russia in the Great War,” from The History of Europe by J. M. Roberts, copyright © 1996 by Helicon Publishing Limited. Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Penguin Books Limited: Map, “The Multinational Empire, 1878–1916,” from The Hapsburgs: Embodying Empire by Andrew Wheatcroft (Viking, 1995), copyright © 1995 by Andrew Wheatcroft. Reproduced by permission of the publisher. The University of Chicago Press: Table 2.1, “Foreign Population in Selected European Countries,” from Limits of Citizenship by Yasemin Nuhoglu Soysal, copyright © 1994 by The University of Chicago Press. Reproduced by permission of the publisher.
    The Library of Congress has cataloged the Knopf edition as follows:
Mazower, Mark.
Dark Continent: Europe’s twentieth century / Mark Mazower.—1st American ed.
p. cm.
1. Europe — History — 20th century. I. Title. II. Series.
D424.M39 1998
940.55 — DC21 98–15886
    eISBN: 978-0-307-55550-2
    Author photograph © by Johanna Weber
    www.vintagebooks.com
    v3.1

for Ruthie

And In Memory Of
Frouma Mazower Max
Mazower
Reg Shaffer

CONTENTS

PREFACE

ONE

TWO

THREE

FOUR

FIVE

SIX

SEVEN

EIGHT

NINE

TEN

ELEVEN

Epilogue: Making Europe
In these last years there has been and still is much talk of Europe and European civilization, of anti-Europe and forces opposed to European civilization and so on. Appeals, articles in newspapers and magazines, discussions and polemics: in all, the word “Europe” has been tossed around with unusual frequency, for good reasons and bad. But if we stop to analyse a little more closely what is meant by “Europe” we immediately become conscious of the enormous confusion which reigns in the minds of those who talk about it  …
    —F. CHABOD (1943–4) 1
    “Democracy has won,” wrote Zbigniew Brzezinski in 1990. “The free market has won. But what in the wake of this great ideological victory is today the substance of our beliefs?” As the euphoria which greeted the end of the Cold War gave way to gloomy misgivings, Francis Fukuyama saw communism’s collapse ushering in the end of history and the dawning of a more prosaic and less heroic era. Others foresaw instead the rebirth of history’s demons—nationalism, fascism and racial and religious struggle. They talked about “the return of history” and drew grim parallels—as Sarajevo hit the headlines—between 1992 and the eve of the First World War.
    In fact, history had neither left Europe nor returned to it. But with the end of the Cold War, Europe’s place in history changed. Europe is once again undivided, but it no longer occupies the central role in world affairs which it held before the Cold War began. Understanding where we stand today thus requires not only seeing how the present resembles the past, but how it differs from it as well. Sometimes itis easier to dream the old dreams—even when they are nightmares—than to wake up to