Free The War That Ended Peace: The Road to 1914 by Margaret MacMillan

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15. All across Europe civilians were urged to emulate the military and demonstrate such qualities as discipline, sacrifice and patriotism. Scouts and cadets were a manifestation of militarism. These boys in the Balkans also show the growing readiness for war in that troubled part of the world.

16. Commemorating great figures and events of the past helped to fuel the intense nationalism which marked so many European societies before 1914. While it was often promoted by leaders anxious to overcome divisions in the nation, nationalism also came from the grass roots. Here locals in a small French town celebrate Joan of Arc despite the fact that she fought against France’s new friend Britain.

17. General Joseph Joffre (left) became chief of the French general staff in 1911. Efficient and phlegmatic, he inspired confidence in the politicians. Like many, he was wedded to the idea of the offensive. His civilian companion at these army manoeuvres was President Raymond Poincaré (centre), an ardent nationalist.

18. Helmut von Moltke, chief of the German General Staff, was a pessimist and depressive who felt himself inadequate for the duties of his office. In the crisis of 1914 he suffered a breakdown.

19. Clever and competent, Vladimir Sukhomlinov was also vain and corrupt. While he helped to prepare the armed forces for war, he was over-optimistic about their capacity to take the offensive. In 1916 he was tried on charges of abuse of power and treason.

20. Alfred von Schlieffen gave his name to the Schlieffen Plan which assumed that Germany would have to fight a two front war against Russia and France. By violating Belgian neutrality, which Germany had promised to uphold, the plan significantly increased the chances of Britain entering the war.

21. Bernhard von Bulow was Germany’s chancellor and in charge of its foreign policy from 1900–09. He managed, for the most part, to keep his difficult ruler Wilhelm under control but was unable to prevent the developing naval race with Britain.

22. In 1905, Kaiser Wilhelm rode through the narrow streets in Tangier which were lined with cheering crowds who may have hoped that he would save Morocco from French domination. His government, which hoped to break apart the very recent friendship between France and Britain, insisted on the visit against Wilhelm’s better judgement.

23. Herbert Asquith was Liberal prime minister from 1908 to 1916. An adept politician who kept a divided party together and had to deal with an increasingly turbulent Britain and a rebellious Ireland, he left foreign affairs largely to Grey.

24. Like most leading statesmen in Austria-Hungary, foreign minister Alois Aehrenthal came from the aristocracy. Deeply conservative, he was dedicated to serving the emperor and maintaining Austria-Hungary as a great power.

25. Sir Edward Grey, British foreign secretary between 1905 and 1916, was a Liberal who believed in the Empire, a statesman who disliked foreign countries, and a prig who suspected everyone else of low motives.

26. Known as ‘Apis’ or the Bull on account of his formidable physique and character, Colonel Dragutin Dimitrijević was head of Serbian military intelligence in 1914. Deeply involved in secret Serb nationalist societies, he encouraged the plot to assassinate the Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo.

27. The Bulgarian troops on their way to fight the Ottoman Empire in the First Balkan War of 1912 have little idea of what lies in store. Although the Ottomans were defeated by an alliance of Balkan states, the Bulgarian army was badly mauled.

28. Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, and his wife Sophie set out on a summer morning in Sarajevo on their last trip. The timing could not have been worse since it coincided with the Serbians’ national day. In spite of warnings of terrorist plots security was lax. His death removed the one man close to the emperor who might have counselled against war.