Free The Other Slavery by Andrés Reséndez

Olivier, Viaje a la Huasteca con Guy Stresser-Péan (Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 2008), 247–256; and the Suma de Visitas de Pueblos por Orden Alfabético, in Francisco del Paso y Troncoso, Papeles de Nueva España (Madrid: Impresores de la Real Casa, 1905), 230.
    23. The quote about the Chichimecs is from Fray Guillermo de Santa María, quoted in Alberto Carrillo Cázares, ed., Guerra de los Chichimecas (Zamora: El Colegio de Michoacán, 2003), 117. See also Powell, Soldiers, Indians and Silver, 50–51.
    24. Kelsey, Sir John Hawkins, 71–93; Philip Wayne Powell, Mexico’s Miguel Caldera: The Taming of America’s First Frontier, 1548–1597 (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1977), 40–45.
    25. On the council of 1569 and at least three others that followed, see Carrillo Cázares, El Debate sobre la Guerra Chichimeca, 56–57, 223–245; Powell, Soldiers, Indians and Silver, 106–107; and Powell, Mexico’s Miguel Caldera, 68–69.

    26. On Archbishop Pedro Moya de Contreras’s position, see his letter to chief councilor of the Indies Juan de Ovando, Mexico City, August 31, 1574, in Paso y Troncoso, Epistolario de Nueva España, 11, 179.
    27. The quotes are from “Comisión título de capitán para Luis de Carvajal,” Mexico, April 11, 1572; Viceroy Enríquez to Carvajal, Mexico, April 17, 1572; and testimony by Juan de Urribarri, Mexico City, February 15, 1578, all cited in Temkin, Luis de Carvajal, 54, 54, and 61, respectively.
    28. Fiscal Arteaga Mendiola to King Philip II, Mexico City, March 30, 1576, and November 2, 1576, both in Temkin, Luis de Carvajal, 69.
    29. Francisco de Belver, quoted in Primo Feliciano Velázquez, Historia de San Luis Potosí, 4 vols. (Mexico City: Sociedad Mexicana de Geografía y Estadística, 1946), 1:330. Carvajal’s pronouncement reportedly occurred at the church of Xilitla (or Xelitla), not far from Jalpan. Soldiers Cristóbal Rangel and Martín Robles, who were not present at Xilitla at the time, heard the same version and provided testimony to that effect. Velázquez, Historia de San Luis Potosí, 329. Temkin discounts Belver’s testimony, claiming that he was one of the soldiers disrupting the peace that Carvajal had achieved in the region in 1576. In fact, to clear Carvajal of all wrongdoing, Temkin goes on to question the motivations not only of Belver but also of the fiscal of the Audiencia of Mexico, Eugenio de Salazar, and of the viceroy, Álvaro Manrique de Zúñiga, Marquis de Villamanrique. Temkin, Luis de Carvajal, 70–72, 129–171.
    30. Philip Wayne Powell, War and Peace on the North Mexican Frontier: A Documentary Record, vol. 1 (Madrid: Ediciones José Porrúa Turanzas, 1971), 163–182; Powell, Mexico’s Miguel Caldera, 54–55, 60.
    31. Provinces or regions in the Spanish empire were often referred to as “kingdoms,” such as the “kingdom of New Mexico” or the “kingdom of Guatemala.” “New Spain” and “Mexico” are used interchangeably in this book to refer to the region that now includes the country of Mexico and the American Southwest.
    32. Eugenio del Hoyo, Esclavitud y encomiendas de indios en el Nuevo Reino de León, siglos XVI y XVII (Monterrey: Archivo General del Estado de Nuevo León, 1985), passim. In northern Mexico, encomiendas had traditionally amounted to spoils of conquest. In theory Spanish governors gave these grants of Indians to “worthy” or “meritorious” colonists. But in practice the system often operated the other way around: Spanish colonists subdued Indian bands that they subsequently requested be granted to them as encomiendas. In places such as Nuevo León, Durango, and Chihuahua, these roundups of Indians were indistinguishable from slave raids. Over the years, however, the Spanish crown whittled away at the encomenderos’ stranglehold on such Indians by reducing the time they could hold their encomiendas—initially from perpetuity to “three lives” (i.e., three generations) and then, by the